Also, welding is a highly complex metallurgical process, and therefore, weldments are susceptible to material discontinuities, flaws, and residual stresses. However, for numerical modelling of problems where very large strains occur, such as plastic forming and ductile damage and fracture, understanding the post-necking strain hardening behaviour is necessary. For metallic materials, standard uniaxial tensile tests with round bar specimens or flat specimens only provide accurate equivalent stress–strain curve before diffuse necking.
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